煙氣的顏色
《柯克火災調(diào)查(第八版)》譯著內(nèi)容系列轉(zhuǎn)載
----專題十四
1) 可燃物燃燒產(chǎn)生什么顏色的煙氣?為什么會有不同顏色的煙氣?
2) 煙氣顏色能反映哪些信息?通過煙氣的顏色能夠判斷可燃物類型和火勢發(fā)展嗎?
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■ F I R E Observation of smoke may be helpful in obtaining an indication of the type of the fuel. Smoke color, especially colors other than the neutral white, gray, or black, may give indications of special types of fuel being combusted if they are present in large amounts. Smoke that has an unusual hue, such as red-brown or yellow, may indicate the presence of materials other than conventional building materials and furnishings. 觀察煙氣可能有助于了解可燃物的類型。煙氣顏色,特別是有別于常見的白色、灰色或黑色以外的顏色,能表明有大量特定類型的可燃物參與燃燒。紅棕色或黃色等特殊顏色的煙氣則表明可能存在常規(guī)建材和家具以外的材料。 When complete combustion occurs, most materials produce little or no visible smoke. Under these ideal conditions, all carbon is burned to carbon dioxide, a colorless gas. Incomplete combustion of carbon leads to carbon monoxide, also colorless and odorless but having very toxic properties. Incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials also produces various highly carbonaceous compounds that are opaque, such as soot, which is largely carbon. 當發(fā)生完全燃燒時,多數(shù)材料只產(chǎn)生少量的或不可見的煙。在這種理想條件下,所有的碳燃燒生成無色氣體二氧化碳。碳的不完全燃燒會產(chǎn)生一氧化碳,也是無色無味的,但具有很強的毒性。含碳物質(zhì)的不完全燃燒還會產(chǎn)生各種不透明的含碳量高的化合物,如主要成分是碳的煙炱。 Hydrogen, present in all organic materials, burns to water vapor, a major constituent of all combustion gases. It does not contribute to the smoke characteristics, although it may at times be recognized as steam. Other elements often present in organic materials, such as nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens, contribute gases to the combustion products. However, only under very special conditions do these alter the color of the smoke. They may contribute strongly to its odor when present in larger-than-ordinary amounts. Such effects may be encountered in industrial fires but rarely in residential ones. 所有有機材料中都含有氫,氫燃燒產(chǎn)生的水蒸氣是燃燒產(chǎn)物的主要成分之一。有時認為產(chǎn)物是蒸汽(vapor,物質(zhì)的氣態(tài)形式;steam,水受熱蒸發(fā)產(chǎn)生的蒸汽),但對煙氣的特性沒有影響。有機材料中常存在其他元素,如氮、硫和鹵素,這增加了燃燒產(chǎn)物中的氣體類型。然而,只有在非常特殊的條件下,這些元素才會改變煙氣的顏色。當其含量高于正常值時,會產(chǎn)生強烈的氣味。這種現(xiàn)象在工業(yè)火災中可能遇到,但很少出現(xiàn)在住宅火災中。 The color of smoke is almost entirely determined by the character and type of fuel and the availability of oxygen for complete combustion. Most materials, including all hydrocarbons, will never burn completely even in the presence of excess air, without premixing of the fuel with air. This is true of natural gas when burning in large volumes. 煙氣的顏色幾乎完全由可燃物性質(zhì)、類型以及氧氣供給情況決定。包括所有碳氫化合物在內(nèi)的大多數(shù)材料,如果未與空氣預混,即使在空氣供給過量的情況下也不會發(fā)生完全燃燒。大量天然氣燃燒時也是如此。 As the hydrocarbon molecules become larger, such as those in petroleum oils, more air is required, and it becomes more difficult to completely mix the fuel with air. Thus, in an ordinary fire, materials such as petroleum distillates tend to produce a large quantity of dense black smoke. Therefore, the presence of much black smoke may indicate the burning of a highly carbonaceous material like the petroleum products sometimes used as accelerants. Dense black smoke, however, is usually more indicative of the amount of ventilation and the stage of development at which the fire is burning. For example, fire burning in a restricted space without adequate and complete ventilation will always form more smoke and darker smoke than when the same fire is well ventilated. 隨著碳氫化合物分子增大,比如石油中的分子,其燃燒需要更多的空氣,且可燃物與空氣完全混合難度變得更大。因此,一般火災中,石油餾出物等材料往往產(chǎn)生大量的濃密黑煙(見圖1)。因此,出現(xiàn)大量黑煙的現(xiàn)象可能表明燃燒過程中存在含碳量較高的材料,如有時作為助燃劑的石油產(chǎn)品。然而,濃密的黑煙通常更能反映通風狀況以及火災所處的發(fā)展階段。例如,相較于通風良好的火災,受限空間通風不足,燃燒經(jīng)常會產(chǎn)生更多顏色更深的煙氣。 圖1 油品燃燒產(chǎn)生大量黑煙 The early stages of a developing structure fire may be dominated by the incomplete combustion and partial pyrolysis of fuels present. These products of incomplete combustion are often characterized by dense clouds of dark smoke that form until flashover occurs, windows break, and the flammable vapors freely combust. At this point, the smoke becomes a lighter color and less opaque, sometimes almost transparent. If the initial fuel is cellulosic, the smoke will be light colored from the outset due to the release of water vapor and absence of soot. 建筑火災發(fā)展初期以可燃物的不完全燃燒和部分熱解為主。不完全燃燒產(chǎn)物通常以形成濃密的黑色煙氣層為特征,這種情況會一直持續(xù)到轟燃(flashover,室內(nèi)火災所有可燃物表面同時起火的現(xiàn)象)發(fā)生、窗口破壞以及易燃蒸氣開始自由燃燒。此時,煙氣顏色開始變得更淺、更透明,有時幾乎完全透明。如果最初可燃物為纖維素材料,由于其燃燒產(chǎn)生水蒸汽且沒有煙炱,煙氣從一開始就是淺顏色的。 Oxygenated organic materials, such as cellulosics, burning freely in the presence of air often produce little or no colored smoke. Alcohols, for example, are in this category. If used as accelerants, they will not be detected by observing the smoke. The same is true of wood and most cellulosic building materials that produce either a white or light gray smoke, except when the supply of air is greatly restricted. Even under these circumstances, they will not produce the heavy black smoke that follows the burning of heavier hydrocarbons. Asphalt-like materials, also common in building construction, and materials such as tar paper, some paints, sponge rubber upholstery, adhesives, sealing compounds, and most floor coverings will generally produce a black smoke. These are more likely to burn late in a fire, so that the production of heavy black smoke late in a fire is not ordinarily an indication of the use of accelerant. Many plastics, especially polystyrenes and polyurethane, produce thick black smoke when burned in large quantities in air. 含氧有機材料,如纖維素,在空氣中自由燃燒通常產(chǎn)生淡淡的或無色的煙氣。例如酒精就屬于這類物質(zhì)。如果使用酒精作為助燃劑,將無法通過觀察煙氣來探測其著火。木材和多數(shù)纖維素建筑材料也是如此,除非空氣供給受到極大限制,否則燃燒時也會產(chǎn)生白色或淺灰色煙氣(見圖2)。即使在空氣供給受限的情況下,這類材料也不會像重質(zhì)碳氫化合物燃燒那樣產(chǎn)生濃密的黑煙。建筑施工中常見的瀝青類材料燃燒時通常產(chǎn)生黑煙,如油氈、油漆、海綿橡膠裝飾、粘合劑、密封膠和多數(shù)地板裝飾物等。這些可燃物更有可能在火災后期發(fā)生燃燒,因此,火災發(fā)展后期產(chǎn)生濃密黑煙往往并不表明使用了助燃劑。許多塑料,特別是聚苯乙烯和聚氨酯,在空氣中大量燃燒時也會產(chǎn)生厚厚的黑煙(見圖3)。 圖2 植物燃燒產(chǎn)生灰白色的煙氣 圖3 塑料泡沫燃燒產(chǎn)生黑色煙氣和熔融滴落物 The optical density of smoke produced during oxygen-depletion calorimetry is measured by a standardized light-path method in the exhaust duct. The value obtained can be used to predict the visibility factors that affect tenability and escape paths for people in the fire room. Once again, if comparison samples of suspected fuels are available, tests can be conducted to assess their contributions. 在基于耗氧原理(大多數(shù)材料燃燒消耗1kg氧氣釋放13.1MJ能量)的量熱儀試驗中,煙氣光學密度是采用標準光路法測量排煙管道中的煙氣得到的。光學密度值可用于預測能見度,該參數(shù)影響火場中人員耐受能力和逃生路徑。同樣,如果有疑似燃料的比較樣本,可以通過試驗評估其對火災的影響。 譯者注:碳氫化合物燃燒易產(chǎn)生黑煙。如果分子中含有氧元素,燃燒時煙氣顏色相對較淺。但也不能完全依靠煙氣的顏色判斷可燃物類型,因為煙氣顏色還與氧氣的供給情況有關(guān)。例如,通風良好的條件下木材燃燒產(chǎn)生的煙氣顏色較淺,但同種木材在空氣不足的情況下燃燒也會產(chǎn)生黑煙。 此外,淺色的煙氣也可能是可燃物分解出來的未燃氣體,如陰燃時產(chǎn)生的煙氣(見圖4)。陰燃(smoldering)是某些固體物質(zhì)無可見光的緩慢燃燒,主要發(fā)生在空氣不流通的情況下。陰燃時可燃物分解后殘留的炭發(fā)生表面燃燒,分解出來的可燃氣體形成淺色的煙氣,由于沒有發(fā)生氣相燃燒,因此不產(chǎn)生火焰。 圖4 沙發(fā)墊陰燃產(chǎn)生白色的煙氣 當密閉空間發(fā)生火災氧氣不足時,燃燒熄滅,由于溫度較高,可燃物仍會繼續(xù)熱解,這種情況下產(chǎn)生的煙氣顏色也較淺。此時若將密閉房間打開,可能會在開口處發(fā)生回燃(backdraft) 見圖5。 圖5 回燃試驗